Evgeny Vinokurov

Attempting to provide a fully-fledged theory of enclaves and exclaves, A Theory of Enclaves covers a wide scope of regions and territories throughout the world and satisfies the need for a systematic view on enclaves. This book covers 282 enclaves, with a combined population total of approximately three million, but the importance of enclaves is much higher because of their specific status and issues raised for both the mainland states and the surrounding states: Gibraltar was disproportionately large for British-Spanish relations throughout the last three centuries, Kaliningrad managed to cause a major crisis in the EU-Russian relations in 2002-03, Tiny Ceuta and Melilla have caused tensions in Spanish-Moroccan relations for more than three centuries and have recently become visible as conflict points at the EU level, German Buesingen was subject to several complex international treaties between Germany and Switzerland. Rather than viewing each enclave as a unique case, or even as an anomaly, A Theory of Enclaves provides a systematic investigation of enclave-related political and economic issues. Rich on maps and illustrations, A Theory of Enclaves strives to comprise three facets of enclaves' existence: political, economic, and social life.

When the Soviet Union broke up, Kaliningrad suddenly found itself separated from mainland Russia by new frontiers. Hardly any other Russian region has been hit as hard by the economic disruption as Kaliningrad. The geographical situation of the region meant that it was more highly exposed to the destabilising effects of post-communist economic transformation. Since then, a dramatic trade opening has occurred, and regional trade and production have undergone profound changes. Kaliningrad has experienced a major shift in its economic orientation towards the tertiary sector and a new industrial orientation based on its position as an intermediary in EU–Russian trade. In short, that is what this report is about: the present and future economic development of this Russian enclave during its integration into the world economy, its place in the international division of labour and in the Russian–EU economic interface.

The principal argument of the paper is the following. Russia’s policy on Kaliningrad, above all the Special Economic Zone (SEZ) regime, renders the defining impact on Kaliningrad’s regional economic development. At the same time, changes in the external environment, of which the 2004 EU Enlargement is a major instance, have only a moderate impact on Kaliningrad. In other words, economic gravity of the enclave is determined politically (through the alliance with the mainland state) rather than geographically. Despite being detached from mainland Russia, its geographical proximity to the EU is by far less important than the special economic regime and other consequences of Kaliningrad being a Russian region.

The complete version can be download from www.vinokurov.info/enclaves.htm,

This manuscript repsresents the work in progress.

The Kaliningrad oblast of Russia is currently аn important focal point of discussions between the European Union and Russia. Although small in terms of geography and population, Kaliningrad has grown in importance due to the EU enlargement process. Since the break-up of the Soviet Union, the oblast has become аn exclave of Russia, and it is now set to also become en enclave within the EU.

The paper examines current stand on Kaliningrad transit issue analysing transit documents’ schemes after their implementation in 2003. Policy options for both Russia and the EU on the issue of movement of people concerning Kaliningrad Region are reviewed. The paper argues that passenger transit through Lithuania is just a part of a larger circle of problems and as such can be absorbed by more comprehensive solutions. A complex compromise solution is proposed on the basis of partial reciprocity. It is feasible for Russia to introduce visa-free regime for the EU citizens in Kaliningrad Region. On the EU side, visa regime for Kaliningrad may be kept intact, if multi-entry Schengen visas with longer validity will be made available to the residents of Kaliningrad and visa procedures will be eased up.

This paper explores the evolvement and change of approaches of both Russia and the EU to the Kaliningrad question over the last decade. The positions and approaches of Russia and the European Union vary on Kaliningrad-related issues. Different understandings of the Kaliningrad question as well as different concepts of the region dominate foreign policy in the EU and Russia. Nevertheless, a trend for a slow rapprochement is revealed.